Using the time-of-flight principle of high frequency sound waves, it is possible to accurately measure distances within an aqueous medium, such as inside the body of a living being during a surgical procedure. High frequency sound, or ultrasound, is defined as vibrational energy that ranges in frequency from 100 kHz to 10 MHz. The device used to obtain three-dimensional measurements using sound waves is known as a sonomicrometer. Typically, a sonomicrometer consists of a pair of piezoelectric transducers (i.e., one transducer acts as a transmitter while the other transducer acts as a receiver). The transducers are implanted into a medium, and connected to electronic circuitry. To measure the distance between the transducers, the transmitter is electrically energized to produce ultrasound. The resulting sound wave then propagates through the medium until it is detected by the receiver.
The transmitter typically takes the form of a piezoelectric crystal that is energized by a high voltage spike, or impulse function lasting under a microsecond. This causes the piezoelectric crystal to oscillate at its own characteristic resonant frequency. The envelope of the transmitter signal decays rapidly with time, usually producing a train of six or more cycles that propagate away from the transmitter through the aqueous medium. The sound energy also attenuates with every interface that it encounters.
The receiver also typically takes the form of a piezoelectric crystal (with similar characteristics to the transmitter piezoelectric crystal), that detects the sound energy produced by the transmitter and begins to vibrate in response thereto. This vibration produces an electronic signal in the order of millivolts, that can be amplified by appropriate receiver circuitry.
The propagation velocity of ultrasound in an aqueous medium is well documented. The distance traveled by a pulse of ultrasound can therefore be measured simply by recording the time delay between the instant the sound is transmitted and when it is received.
Prior art ultrasound measurement systems suffer from a number of shortcomings which limit their utility. Firstly, conventional sonomicrometers use analog circuitry to transmit and receive signals (e.g., phase capacitative charging circuits). The voltage representing the measured distance is then output to a strip chart recorder in analog form. This data must then be digitized for computer analysis.
Secondly, conventional ultrasound measurement systems use analog potentiometers to adjust the inhibit time and the threshold voltage that triggers the receiver circuits. This often requires the use of an oscilloscope. Each time the sonomicrometer is used, these settings must be manually set and adjusted in order to tune the system. This can be time consuming and annoying. As a whole, the function of the tracking system cannot be changed. The repetition frequency is fixed, regardless of the number of channels used, and the tracking system is therefore very limited in terms both of the distances that can be measured, and the temporal precision with which the sonomicrometer system operates.
Thirdly, conventional sonomicrometers feature pairs of transmitter and receiver crystals that are energized sequentially at fixed repetition rates. As such, prior art tracking systems lack experimental flexibility. For example, before a pair of crystals is implanted in the medium (e.g., a bodily structure, such as a human organ), the user must decide the function of each crystal; similarly, the user must determine which distances are to be measured by which crystal pair. This can be awkward because surgery often necessitates changes during the procedure. If either of the receiver or transmitter crystals malfunctions, the distance between them cannot be measured. Critical measurements can therefore be lost after a significant amount of effort is put into setting up the surgery.
Fourthly, conventional ultrasound tracking systems measure only a straight line distance between any isolated pair of crystals. Three-dimensional information is therefore impossible to acquire. Even if multiple combinations of distances could somehow be linked together, the inherently analog nature of the data would necessitate the use of additional, complex hardware.
Finally, conventional ultrasound tracking systems use discrete elements, such as threshold capacitors and potentiometers requiring large plug-in units to increase the number of channels. The systems are very large, usually two feet wide by 18" deep, and up to 12" high. Additional hardware such as strip chart recorders must be used, for visualization and subsequent processing. This can be very awkward given the space constraints at busy research institutes and hospitals.
The foregoing drawbacks to prior art systems limited their utility, and hence limit the practicality of using the systems to perform various types of medical procedures.